1980s Nigerian Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) and Second-Tier Foreign Exchange Market (SFEM)

Introduced in the 1980s, SAP aimed to stabilize Nigeria's economy through fiscal austerity, reduction of government spending, and promotion of private sector growth. Launched on September 26, 1986, SFEM was designed to create a more flexible exchange rate system, allowing market forces to determine currency value and improve foreign exchange availability. Both initiatives intended to address economic challenges, enhance competitiveness, and attract foreign investments by liberalizing trade and adjusting currency policies.

Nigerian Economic Context of the 1980s

The Nigerian economy heavily depended on oil exports, which faced significant price fluctuations in the 1980s, leading to reduced government revenue.

The combined effects of falling oil prices and mismanagement resulted in a severe economic recession, prompting the need for urgent reforms.

Objectives of SAP and SFEM

SAP aimed to reduce inflation through monetary policy adjustments and fiscal discipline, which included cutting government spending and increasing taxes.

SFEM sought to liberalize the foreign exchange market, allowing for a more flexible exchange rate that reflects market forces, thereby improving foreign investment. SFEM was introduced to dampen interest in the parallel market, deregulate the financial sector and allow market forces to determine the exchange rate.

The primary goal of SAP was to stabilize the Nigerian economy by addressing fiscal imbalances and enhancing efficiency in resource allocation.

Implementation Strategies

· The Nigerian government devalued the Naira to boost export competitiveness and reduce trade deficits, correcting prior overvaluation.

· SAP removed trade restrictions, allowing more imports and exports by reducing tariffs and eliminating import licenses to enhance competition.

· Public Sector Reform. SAP involved restructuring the public sector for efficiency, including privatization of state-owned enterprises and downsizing agencies.

· Monetary Policy Adjustment. The Central Bank adjusted monetary policy to control inflation and stabilize the Naira by increasing interest rates to curb liquidity.

Economic Growth Indicators Post-SAP and SFEM

Analysis of Economic Growth in Nigeria (1986-1993) indicated the following:

· GDP growth fluctuated significantly, with an initial contraction of 1.6% in 1986, followed by a recovery to 3.5% by 1990, indicating a volatile economic environment.

· Unemployment rates increased sharply from 3.8% in 1986 to over 10% by 1990, reflecting the negative impact of economic reforms on job creation.

· Foreign direct investment saw a decline in the early years of SAP, but efforts to liberalize the market led to a gradual increase, reaching $1.1 billion by 1993.

Social Implications.

SAP and SFEM brought about the following:

Changes in Living Standards. The implementation of SAP led to increased inflation, resulting in diminished purchasing power and a decline in living standards for many Nigerians.

Employment Challenges. SAP and SFEM caused job losses in various sectors, particularly in public enterprises, as economic restructuring led to layoffs and reduced hiring.

Access to Public Services. Economic policies under SAP resulted in cuts to public spending, adversely affecting healthcare, education, and infrastructure services.

Social Unrest and Protests. The adverse effects of SAP prompted widespread protests and unrest, as citizens demanded accountability and better living conditions.

Public Reaction and Criticism

Public Outcry and Protests. Widespread protests erupted in response to rising unemployment and poverty. Civil society groups criticized the government for lack of transparency. Strikes and demonstrations were common as citizens demanded policy reforms.

Criticism of Economic Policies. SAP was seen as favoring foreign interests over local economy. Critics argued that devaluation worsened living conditions for the poor. Public sentiment reflected disappointment in government handling of economic issues.

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Consequences of Implementation Of Austerity Measures On Social Services

From South America to Europe, Asia and Africa, it has been discovered that austerity measures are not favourable to the low-income members of the countries. Poverty tends to increase with each implementation of the austerity measure by various governments. Most of the GCC countries have very good citizens' welfare package that alleviate any negative economic impact for their citizens. These policies should be copied by other governments all over the world.

As inflation increases in 2024, there is a possibility of countries trying to introduce austerity measures to curb inflation by reducing government spendings and budget deficit. But it has been proved that this does not really work all over the world.

Below is the current highest inflation rate in the world.

(Ref: https://intelpoint.co/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/image-88-65f858b62ed75.webp)

The following are major negative impact of implementing austerity measures:

Decline in Access to Education

The implementation of austerity measures has resulted in substantial reductions in funding for educational programs, leading to an increase in student-to-teacher ratios and a marked decline in the availability of educational resources, particularly adversely impacting low-income families.

Diminished Availability of Healthcare Services

Significant cuts to healthcare budgets have resulted in prolonged wait times for patients and diminished access to critical health services, with these adverse effects disproportionately impacting marginalized and vulnerable populations.

Erosion of the Social Safety Net

Reductions in funding for social services have undermined the structural safety net for the most at-risk individuals, resulting in a heightened dependency on informal support mechanisms and exacerbating existing economic disparities.

Rising Unemployment Rates

Austerity measures have frequently resulted in significant reductions in public sector employment, disproportionately affecting women, who constitute approximately 60% of the workforce in the public sector in nations such as Argentina.

Gender Inequality and the Impact of Austerity Measures

The reduction of funding for social services, particularly in the domains of healthcare and education, has had detrimental effects on women, who are predominantly the primary caregivers within families, thereby exacerbating their unpaid labor responsibilities.

Expansion of the Wage Gap

Austerity policies failed to mitigate the pre-existing wage gap; empirical studies have demonstrated a 15% escalation in wage disparities between male and female employees during the implementation of these measures.

Diminished Social Services

The reduction of funding for social services, particularly in the domains of healthcare and education, has had detrimental effects on women, who are predominantly the primary caregivers within families, thereby exacerbating their unpaid labor responsibilities

Escalation of Gender-Based Violence

The economic instability associated with austerity measures has been correlated with an increase in gender-based violence; reports indicate a 25% rise in domestic violence incidents in Brazil during this period.

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UAE 2024 Amnesty Program

UAE AMNESTY 2024 Update

Important information from the Amer Center highlights key procedures for various visa situations.

Here's a breakdown to guide you through the process:

🔹 Cancellation for Overstay Individuals

- If you're on overstay (not absconding), you can apply directly for a new visa with a new employer.

- Once the new visa is issued, you can proceed with the status change without any fines.

🔹 Visit Visa Overstay

- Like overstay cases, apply directly for a new visa without needing to visit any center.

🔹 Cancellation/Visit Visa for Absconding Cases

- Visit Al Aweer with a new offer letter to be removed from the blacklist.

- Once you obtain a new visa, proceed with the status change without incurring any fines.

🔹 Active Visa Holders (Company Visa/Housemaid Visa)

- Whether in overstay or not, contact MOHRE Toll-Free Number 600590000 to register a complaint for cancellation.

- After canceling the work permit and residency,

you can obtain a new employment visa directly with a new employer without facing any bans or fines.

For active visa holders, the first step is to cancel the current visa before applying for a new one. No need to visit any centers as they do not accept walk-ins.

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Overview of Hazard Identification Method (HAZID)

This chapter presents the fundamental concepts and importance of hazard identification; key terminology and concepts related to HAZID and the various types of hazards and their potential impacts.

1 Introduction to Hazard Identification

HAZID is the process of recognizing potential hazards that could cause harm to people, the environment, or property. HAZID is essential for proactive risk management and prevention. It helps in reducing the likelihood of accidents and incidents. It enhances the safety culture within an organization.

2 Objectives of Hazard Identification

The primary objectives of HAZID include the following.

· Identify potential hazards in operations and processes.

· Assess the severity and likelihood of identified hazards.

· Develop strategies to eliminate or mitigate risks.

Secondary objectives of HAZID include.

· Improve overall operational safety.

· Ensure compliance with regulatory requirements.

· Enhance organizational reputation and stakeholder confidence.

3 Key Terminology and Concepts

Hazard. A potential source of harm or adverse health effect on a person or persons. It is also the process of putting something at risk of damage or loss. Anything that serves as a form of threat, menace, pitfall, danger or difficulty is hazardous. Hazard can also be defined as a dangerous substance, human activity or condition[i]. The possibility of a natural disaster is an example of hazards. The Covid 19 pandemic was a worldwide hazard.

Risk. The combination of the probability of an event and its consequence. The quantification of a loss in monetary terms, materials or manhour. It is the extent of economic damage that can occur if an hazard turn into an event.

Risk Assessment. The overall process of hazard identification, risk analysis of the hazard, and risk evaluation.

Risk Management. The systematic application of management policies, procedures, and practices to the tasks of identifying, analyzing, evaluating, and controlling risks.

Control Measures. Actions or equipment that are put in place to reduce the risk associated with a hazard.

4 Types of Hazards

• Physical Hazards. Examples. Machinery with rotating, mobile or impact parts. Heights, noise, radiation etc. are examples of physical hazards.

• Chemical Hazards. These could be flammable liquids, toxic chemicals, or corrosive substances such as acids/alkaline. Hazards can be in the form of toxic gases/vapours, aerosols or particulate materials.

• Biological Hazards. Examples are bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microorganisms. Covid-19 pandemic is an example of how a biological hazard can create worldwide risks.

• Ergonomic Hazards. Examples are repetitive movements, pointed materials or improper workstation setup.

• Psychosocial Hazards. Examples are stress, workplace violence, or harassment.

• Environmental Hazards. Examples. Pollution, natural disasters.

5 Impact of Hazards

1. On People. This includes Injuries, illnesses and fatalities.

2. On the Environment. This includes pollution, habitat destruction, and resource depletion.

3. On Property. This includes damage to equipment, infrastructure and loss of materials.

4. On Operations. This includes disruptions, financial losses, legal liabilities.

6 Overview of the HAZID Process

Step 1. Preparation. Gathering necessary information and assembling a team.

Step 2. Hazard Identification. Using various techniques to identify hazards.

Step 3. Risk Analysis. Assessing the potential impact and likelihood of hazards.

Step 4. Evaluation. Determining the significance of risks and prioritizing them.

Step 5. Control. Implementing measures to eliminate or reduce risks.

Step 6. Review. Continuously monitoring and updating the HAZID process.

[i] IFRC, “Hazard definitions”, 2021, https://www.ifrc.org/document /hazard-definitions#.~.text=A%20hazard%20is%20a% 20dangerous,economic%20disruption%2C%20or%20environmental%20damage (June 5, 2021).

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